Not so fantastic? Charting the rise and rise of life with synthetic plastic

When Leo Baekeland invented the first fully-artificial polymer in 1907, he probably did not imagine that the 20th century was to be the century of plastic. Bakelite was surprisingly durable, heat resistant, a good electric insulator, and easily mass-produced. In the following decades other plastics, such as nylon and plexiglass, were invented and started replacing traditional materials. The real power of plastics was seen during WWII, when production in the US increased threefold to supply the army with a variety of products at unprecedented pace.[1] During the booming 1950s, plastic entered everyday life and was seen as the design material of the future, thanks to its infinite colours and shapes. Formica kitchens were marketed as the dream of American housewives,[2] while designer Arne Jacobsen created the Egg Chair for the prestigious Royal Hotel in Copenhagen. And no discussion of plastic can be had without acknowledging the revolutionary impact that plastic has had on the medical industry[3].

By the end of the 60’s, plastic had already begun to lose its futuristic appeal. Six decades later, plastic is now perceived mostly as a cheap and polluting material.[4] Plenty of businesses have been developing and marketing products on the basis of being plastic-free. But living entirely without plastic products is, for most of us, practically impossible without dedicating significant time and effort to it.[5] Nonetheless, it is now abundantly clear that the current patterns of plastic production, consumption and disposal are unsustainable and highly damaging not only to the environment, but also to our own bodies.[6]

‘Plastic’ is an umbrella term used indicate polymers, i.e. materials made of long chains of molecules. Any polymer is technically a plastic, for example cellulose. Bioplastic, namely plastic produced from plants, is a very promising technology. However, the vast majority of plastic materials are made from fossil hydrocarbons, the same resources used to produce fossil fuels. Researchers have estimated that 8.3 billion metric tons (Mt) of such plastics have been produced globally to date, of which 6.3 billion Mt have ended their useful life and thus become waste. Only 9% and 12% of this waste was recycled and incinerated, respectively, while the rest was disposed into landfills or directly into natural environments.[7]

Left in landfills or natural environments, hydrocarbon-based plastics do not biodegrade, but slowly break down into smaller parts and enter the ecosystem. Currently the only way to get rid of hydrocarbon-based plastic is to burn it, which can be highly polluting if not conducted in a controlled way. Plastic pyrolysis, a particular type of combustion, has the potential to become a more sustainable and financially-viable disposal option with valuable by-products.[8] So far, the more sustainable option is recycling, but doing so ‘downcycles’ the material, meaning that it progressively loses usability and economic value. In truth, recycling only delays the inevitable disposal through incineration or landfill. Current global recycling rates for plastic are estimated to be below 20%, much lower than those of other materials such as paper or steel.[9]

Essentially, our economies are ‘leaking’ plastic everywhere, so much that the presence of artificial polymers in geological strata can be used as indicator of the current era, the so-called Anthropocene.[10] The accumulation of plastic waste in oceans is particularly alarming. The IUCN considers plastic pollution as the most widespread issue for marine environments, as at least 8 million Mt of waste enter the oceans annually and makes up 80% of all marine debris.[11] Plastic bags, bottles, containers and wrappers make up almost half of this waste.[12] This takes dramatic proportions in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, the world’s largest accumulation of marine debris. It measures roughly twice the size of France and is located between Japan and the Hawaii.[13] Marine wildlife is the first to be impacted by plastic waste, as animals ingest it or become trapped in it. As micro- and nano-plastic particles enter the food chain, they eventually end up everywhere. Traces have been found in tap water, beer, salt[14] and, unsurprisingly, human faeces.[15]

Regions of plastic waste in the oceans are so large that they have created their own ecosystems, the ‘plastisphere’. In these synthetic environments, species are adapting and thriving. Invasive species take advantage of floating debris to travel across the oceans.[16] Bacteria such as Ideonella sakaiensis have been discovered which are capable of ‘eating’ plastic.[17] This is somewhat a positive development, as we might be able to use such bacteria to reduce plastic waste. But scientists are also concerned about the capacity of the plastisphere to offer good breeding grounds for pathogenic bacteria,[18] such as the cholera causing Vibrio cholerae.